These Are the Times That Try Men's Souls

         The Battle of Saratoga in 1777, while strategically insignificant, proved to be the turning point in the American Revolution. Not only did it provide the necessary psychological boost to the struggling revolutionaries, but it shored up the support of France, forcing Britain to go on the defensive around the globe for the first time. American victories began to be more frequent and tactically important, such as the case with the Battles of Cowpens,  Monmouth, and lastly, Yorktown, which forced Britain to sign the 1783 Treaty of Paris. This raises the question of how these particular battles came about, and why were they so successful? Were the English really that rattled by French involvement, or was there some other factor influencing the outcome on the battlefield?

         The Battle of Cowpens was the first with General Nathaniel Green in command of the rebel army. Gen. Horatio Gates was relieved by Greene after Gates' disastrous performance at Camden, Greene took a more guerilla approach, sending Henry Lee and Daniel Morgan to hassle and upset the British western outposts and supply lines to Charleston, respectively. Frustrated by the "ungentlemanly" fashion of warfare Greene exhibited, English Gen. Charles Cornwallis unleashed Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarlton, a man known for his brutality and malice, to deal with Morgan's forces. However, Captain Morgan was man full of guile, and planned for the battle to take place at Cowpens, where he could use the geography to his advantage. (U.S. National Park Service, 2013)

Morgan placed 150 of his sharpshooters, nicknamed "Morgan's Riflemen", on the front lines, supported by 750 militia, all of whom were given rather abnormal orders: fire several volleys as Tarlton's cavalry charged, then fall back behind the hill. Using the militia's reputation with the British as nothing but terrified farm boys, Morgan drew Tarlton in, counting on the latter's bloodlust to carry him into a trap. The overzealous English troops faced stiff resistance at the top of the first hill at Cowpens, and when the American right flank seemed to deteriorate, Tarlton's men jumped at the weak spot. Pouring through the weakened flank, the British found themselves facing the militia who had fallen back to the other side of the hill previously. General Greene then rushed his own cavalry units in, flanking the British line and wreaking havoc on both the men and their morale. Lt. Col. Tarlton escaped with fewer than 50 of his men, and news of the loss infuriated Gen. Cornwallis, who vowed to hunt Capt. Morgan down. (Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008) This victory not only swung the momentum of the war in the south to the revolutionaries' favor, but also proved to the British that the southern campaigns weren't nearly as cut-and-dry as some of the upper echelon of officers would portray.

         The Battle of Monmouth was in some sense the northern equivalent of Camden and Cowpens for the American leadership. A result of British General Sir Henry Clinton deciding that New York was too valuable a port to lose to the French, upon his hearing they had entered the war on the side of the revolutionaries, 11,000 regulars, 1,000 loyalist volunteers, and a supply train stretching for 12 miles began to work their way tediously from Philadelphia to New York. The English' journey was riddled with problems though, facing burnt bridges, trees 'fallen' across the roads, and muddied wells, none of which were unintentional. American militia and their supporters were purposely harassing the English troops, slowing their movement to a mere 40 miles per week. (Logan, 2001) Despite American General Charles Lee's objections, General George Washington opted to pursue Clinton's forces, attempting to strike them while strung along in their travels. Washington's war council rather surprisingly decided not to attack the vulnerable British, though agreed to a compromise: the American army would send a 6,000 man advance corps to attack the rearguard of the English column. At first, Lee is offered the role of general for the corps, but turned it down, only to accept after Washington offered it to the Marquis de Lafayette.

         Lee's attack was mediocre at best, and his lack of communication with his subordinates nearly ruined the assault. Clinton sent Gen. Charles Cornwallis, fresh from the southern campaigns, to defend the rearguard, and despite being outnumbered by nearly 3,000 men, the Americans were forced to begin a disorganized retreat. When Washington rode forward to observe the attack and saw his advance corps fleeing headlong towards him, his shock and disbelief gave way to uncharacteristic rage. (Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008) Relieving the incompetent Lee from his command, Washington took over the corps personally, establishing a new defensive line on high ground that was flanked by dense forest and a swamp. The newly-emboldened Americans under their charismatic general held their lines as the British attempted to attack their hasty fortifications, and after failing several times, Cornwallis wisely withdrew, causing Clinton to escape with his army under the cover of nightfall.

         Lastly, the Battle of Yorktown, where the last defeat of Gen. Cornwallis took place at the hands of Gen. Washington, and was part of Cornwallis' response to Cowpens, to crush the Virginian support of the rebels in the Carolinas. The Marquis de Lafayette did a magnificent job of holding a staunch resistance to Cornwallis' army, cornering the British into Yorktown and buying Washington enough time to orchestrate a blitz into the region. Logistically, Washington coordinated the battle months beforehand beautifully, going so far as to personally oversee repairs of bridges and roads, arranging resupply points, and leaving a decoy in New Jersey to feign an attack on Gen. Clinton in New York. (Klos, 2001) When Washington's troops finally arrived to relieve Lafayette's men, the number of Americans besieging Cornwallis swelled to 17,500. Escaping to the sea was rendered impossible, due to the French blockade, so Cornwallis penned a frantic letter, requesting help from Gen. Clinton in New York. Clinton wavered, before finally sending a meager fleet and only 7,000 soldiers – who arrived a fully 5 days after Cornwallis gave up hope and surrendered. (Klos, 2001) This didn't render an immediate end to hostilities, but when news of the surrender reached Parliament, they began taking measures against the hawkish King George to arrange peace with America.

         This peace was formed through the 1783 Treaty of Paris, orchestrated by Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams for the Americans, and Richard Oswald for the English. The treaty not only formed a peace between England and the newly-formed American states, but achieved British recognition of America as an independent nation, fishing rights along the Atlantic coast, and had the island kingdom cede all lands between the Mississippi River and Allegheny Mountains to the Americans, doubling the size of the fledgling nation in the stroke of a pen. (Foner, 1991)

         These were just three examples of resounding American victories that ultimately led to the British defeat. The threat of France, while helping exponentially, was not the ultimate driving force behind American victories – those were due to effective leadership, proper training, and most importantly, fighting for an ideal and home, something the British military never had there. As Thomas Paine once said, "These are the times that try men's souls," and those trying times proved that the mettle of Americans was strong enough to shake off the most powerful empire of the day, and to create the last bastion of freedom.

References

Foner, E., & Garraty, J. A. (1991). Treaty of Paris (1783) — History.com. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/treaty-of-paris-1783

Klos, S. L. (2001, July 27). Battle Of Yorktown. Retrieved from http://www.battleofyorktown.com/

Logan, J. T. (2001, December). The American Revolution - The Battle of Monmouth. Retrieved from http://www.theamericanrevolution.org/battledetail.aspx?battle=21

Shmoop Editorial Team (2008, November 11). Cowpens (Jan 17, 1781) in The American Revolution. Retrieved from http://www.shmoop.com/american-revolution/cowpens-battle.html

Shmoop Editorial Team (2008, November 11). Monmouth (Apr 28, 1778) in The American Revolution. Retrieved from http://www.shmoop.com/american-revolution/monmouth-battle.html

U.S. National Park Service (2013). The Battle of Cowpens - Cowpens National Battlefield. Retrieved from http://www.nps.gov/cowp/historyculture/the-battle-of-cowpens.htm